Full bibliography

An analysis of the connection between fascism and biopolitics in modernizing East Asia reveals that fascism served as colonial biopolitics, and was not historically specificity to Europe, though the rise of fascism was central to European colonialism and its technology of governance. As the last stage of capitalism, imperialism came with an expansion of social engineering in colonial countries, forcing colonized peoples to be “civilized.” I challenge the understanding of European fascism, arguing that fascism is inseparable from colonial biopolitics by analyzing non-European experiences in the 1930s. East Asia was then a site in which fascism, premised on building a utopian nation-state, played a pivotal role in encouraging people to insist upon political and economic autonomy in order to compete with Europe. The Manchurian Empire (滿州帝國) was an attempt to realize this utopian idea of fascism. Finally, I argue that these fascist experiences remain influential in the region and constitute a mirror image of European modernity.